6.1 Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning
If you are presenting an argument there are two main ways that you can present your ideas. We will refer to these as Inductive and Deductive Reasoning. Both can be effective. When we present our ideas inductively, we give specific examples, ideas and evidence and, based on these, present our conclusions at the end. This can also be described as a scientific argument – developing all our points before presenting our conclusion.
Inductive Reasoning
Here’s an example of Inductive Reasoning:
In 2002, the number of women in the district who could read was just 9%. This is poor by national standards, then estimated to be 14%. Presently that figure is 19%. This means that there have been significant advances in female literacy, which has more than doubled since 2002.
Our research also indicates that child mortality stands at just 6.1%, compared to 8.4% six years ago. This represents a decrease of more than 25%. Child mortality in the district was once among the highest in the nation, and is now below the national average of 7.4% (est. 2006).
Both paragraphs are certainly cohesive and complete, but look at where the conclusions are. In each case, they come at the end of the paragraph. Both paragraphs start by presenting facts, which alone may have no significance to the reader. It is following the sequence ‘specific to general’. This forces the reader to process all the information and can make understanding the key point of each paragraph more challenging.
However, a busy reader will not usually read every word. She will usually scan the document, especially if it is a long one, trying to get the main ideas. She will certainly read the first sentence of each paragraph. If the first sentence is just raw data with no explanation, this can lead to frustration.
Always put yourself in the reader’s position. What questions does the reader want the writing to answer? That is what you should deal with first.
Deductive Reasoning
The same information could be presented a more professional way. With Deductive Reasoning, you start out by stating your conclusion, expressed in a Topic Sentence, and then present the main points. Finally, you give the supporting details. Looking at the examples again, presented deductively:
There have been significant advances in female literacy. This has more than doubled since 2002. Presently, female literacy stands at 19%. In 2002, the number of women in the district who could read was just 9%. This was poor by national standards, then estimated to be 14%.
Our research also indicates that child mortality in the district is now below the national average. Child mortality has fallen by over 25% over the past six years. Once among the highest in the nation – 8.4% compared to an average of 7.4% (est. 2006) – it now stands at just 6.1%.
The first sentence of each paragraph is its Topic Sentence. It gives the main idea of the paragraph. We are saying what is most important first, so that the reader can more easily understand what is to follow. We are saving the reader time – the time often wasted hunting for the main idea. The reader can skim through the text and, by reading the first sentence of each paragraph, should be able to build up a clear understanding of the whole document. You are also saving your reader effort – the effort of analysing the data herself.
A further point is that in reports and proposals, you will save yourself a lot of effort when you come to draft a summary or write conclusions. By taking the first – topic – sentence from each paragraph, you should be able to build up a concise summary of the entire document. A final advantage is that we can use well- expressed topic sentences to support our main objective and persuade our readers.
The Pyramid
The Deductive Approach is sometimes described as an Inverted Pyramid.
Traditionally, the Inductive approach follows an argument-building route upwards through a pyramid of logic. Let's refer back to the ‘Education’ section of our extended assignment on Children in Nepal.
graphicIn Nepal, there are just 23,885 primary schools for around 2.5 million children. 60% of these are in urban areas, while 93% of children live in rural areas. This means that children’s access to education is very limited, especially in remote areas. Despite this, 70% of all children are enrolled at primary level, which is encouraging. However, while 79% of boys start primary level, this figure is just 61% for girls, which means that girls are less likely to be educated than boys, a sign of gender bias. In conclusion, we can see that the education status of children is poor.
At the base of the pyramid we have our data – facts and figures from the field.  At the next level, we have the main points. Finally, the journey ends (at last!) with the writer’s conclusion.
graphic
For the reasons mentioned earlier (and others we will discuss shortly), this is not the most effective way to present your professional writing. The action-focused alternative would be something like:
Overall, the primary education situation of children in Nepal is poor. Access to education is limited and, although enrolment is reasonable, there is widespread gender bias against girls.
Limited access is shown through the number of schools and their location. The number of schools is not enough, with a ratio of one primary school per 150 children (23,885 schools for 3.5m primary- age children). Furthermore, most of the schools are concentrated in urban areas, far from where most children live. Nearly 2/3 of schools (60%) are in urban areas while the majority of children (93%) live in remote areas.
Even so, enrolment is reasonably high. Despite limited access, 70% of children do enrol at primary level. However, 1/3 of children still do not begin primary education.
However, we can see widespread gender bias against girls in education. Fewer girls get an opportunity for schooling, with 79% of boys enrolled compared to just 61% of girls.
Notice how the example you saw follows what, in journalism, is sometimes called the Inverted Pyramid. Just as newspapers follow the time- and effort-saving approach of giving the most important points first, professional writers also will regularly use this approach in their reporting.
graphic
Using the Inverted Pyramid we travel in the opposite direction to the scientific / inductive argument. We give our conclusions first; next we describe the data; and, finally, we give supporting evidence, data and examples.
We travel down the pyramid. The different levels of the pyramid are sometimes called the Ladder of Abstraction. At the top we have the general or abstract ideas, and at the bottom we have the specifics.
Let’s look at that paragraph visually before we move on.
graphic
Task
Before we close this introduction to approaches to organising writing, note down:
1. The advantages of using the Inverted Pyramid to organise your ideas in writing

2. Any situations where it would not be a good idea

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Discussion
Why you Should Use the Inverted Pyramid
There are several reasons to seriously consider adopting this approach.
It’s your responsibility. In professional writing, it’s the writer who is the ‘expert’ and knows more than the reader. It’s the writer who has gathered the information and analysed it. Anyone can ‘present information’: but the professional writer’s responsibility is more than this. It’s to:
    • Investigate
    • Understand
    • Describe
    • Explain
It helps the reader to decide on action. Your reader has to spend less mental effort on processing the information and can, consequently, focus on understanding the meaning and significance of what you are writing.
It’s more persuasive. Readers are more likely to agree with your conclusion if it comes at the beginning rather than at the end. If we present our conclusion first, the following data strengthens and supports it. However, if we present the data first, our reader will automatically draw her own conclusions. If your conclusion doesn’t confirm what your reader thinks, then you haven’t succeeded in presenting your case.
Your reader might not read everything. Professional readers will certainly read the first paragraph, and the first sentence of each paragraph. If they are very patient, they will read more – perhaps enough of each paragraph until they find the significant point. Usually when I have found the main point, I will jump to the next paragraph. (This way of reading is sometimes exploited by writers trying to ‘cover up’ project shortcomings. I’ve seen several reports where problems have been hidden away deep inside dense paragraphs. Don’t do it!)
It gets your reader’s attention. By starting with the main point, you have already got the reader’s attention. If she continues on to the second paragraph, she is likely to read all of what you have written. (This technique of ‘hooking’ your reader is especially effective in project proposal writing. If you can get your reader’s attention early, and she goes on to the second page, your proposal is in with a better chance of consideration.)
It helps the reader to follow your argument. By organising your writing in this way, you will help the reader to follow the rest. If you give the main message first, the reader will have a clear idea about where it is all leading to.
It shows respect. If your conclusion comes last, you are forcing your reader to read the whole thing. People from some cultures may feel unsure about this point. Especially where there is a high Power-Distance between reader and writer, or where it is traditional to show respect by not getting to the point so directly, some writers may feel uncomfortable about this. We are showing respect towards the reader’s time and mental effort by getting to our main point quickly. However, we do not insist that you apply any of the tools blindly. That is why we say get to the main point as soon as you can.
When to Use a More Traditional Approach
We asked you earlier to also list any situations where it would not be a good idea to be so ‘direct’. Here are the two situations where we think the ‘direct’ approach may be risky.
Bad News
It helps not to be too direct or blunt when we are giving bad news. For example, we may need to reject a proposal or job application. Usually, we will give some background and explanation before we give the main point. (For example, ‘Thank you for your proposal dated …. We discussed this at ….. While there were many strengths ….. Unfortunately ….. etc.’) Even so, let’s make sure that the message is still clear. If you are firing someone, don’t give so much complimentary background that the person thinks he is being promoted!
High Power-Distance
graphicSometimes our readers can get offended when we are too direct. This is no poor reflection on you as a writer – just that some readers can be very fussy, especially if they consider themselves ‘experts’ or hold a lot of ‘power’. We all know that some bureaucrats expect a lot of ‘respect’, and directness can sometimes offend their sensibilities.
I recall a letter I wrote to one ministry. It was around two pages, and, in my opinion, in the most formal English I knew. My friend, a local lawyer, had other ideas. ‘Too direct’, he said, and proceeded to add entire phrases containing words like ‘grateful’, ‘humble’ and ‘respectfully’.
Even so, we still need to make our point clearly and unambiguously. And in both of these cases, you still need to:
    • Get to the main message as soon as you possibly can
    • Present your ideas logically
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